In the ancient world, powerful cultural expressions arose in Ancient Egypt and Ancient Mesopotamia. While there are shared themes of power and divinity in their art, it is important to differentiate between the artistic expressions and cultural contexts of these ancient societies. In ancient Egypt, a hierarchical scale placed kings or pharaohs on a god-like pedestal due to their connection with the divine. The majority of recovered artworks come from tombs and monuments, emphasizing the belief in life after death and knowledge of the divine. Ancient Near Eastern art likewise used complex symbolism to identify powerful rulers. In terms of artistic style, Mesopotamian art often exhibited a more naturalistic approach, whereas Egyptian art favored a more stylized and idealized representation of human figures. Additionally, Egyptian art extensively employed hieroglyphic writing in its artistic compositions, while Mesopotamian art relied on cuneiform script. The Stela of Hammurabi from Babylon, King Hammurabi's code of law from 1790 BCE, exemplifies Hammurabi's power bestowed upon him by the god Shamash, the deity of justice and the sun. In Ancient Egypt, an influential figure representing power is Hatshepsut, the most formidable female ruler who was in power nearly 3,500 years ago in Egypt. The Temple of Hatshepsut served as her burial site, and the focal point of the tomb was the Djeser-Djeseru, where funerary goods for Hatshepsut were offered.

Ancient Near Eastern and Ancient Egyptian societies assigned a crucial role to art in reflecting the power and divinity of their rulers and gods. Art served not only as an aesthetic expression but also had a greater purpose in society, religion, politics, and social functions. Egyptian art was utilized to represent the divine and the afterlife. Sculptures and paintings depicted pharaohs in various scenes, emphasizing their power, authority, and connections to the gods. Art also reflected the religious beliefs, myths, and rituals of the ancient Near Eastern societies, featuring depictions of gods, goddesses, religious ceremonies, and mythological creatures. Everyday items such as pottery, jewelry, and clothing were not only used for practical purposes but also served as commodities for trade and exchange.

Ancient Mesopotamian art, including that of Babylon, predominantly revolves around Mesopotamian city-states such as Sumer, Akkad, and Assyria. Painting, sculpting, and architecture in Mesopotamia often focused on monumental structures and intricate relief carvings. These artworks served as representations of power, religious beliefs, and societal organization. The Stele of Hammurabi, for instance, was the code of law established by King Hammurabi in 1790 BCE. Hammurabi derived his authority from the god Shamash, the deity of justice and the sun. Erected in a public place where people could view and read the inscribed laws, it made Hammurabi's ultimate authority in his kingdom clear and emphasized that his laws were to be followed by everyone. The Hammurabi code of laws, comprising 282 rules, established standards for commercial interactions and prescribed fines and punishments to ensure justice. This demonstrates how Hammurabi received the laws from the god of justice, Shamash, and how he was chosen by the gods to rule over the Babylonians and administer justice according to their laws. Other examples of works are also a testament to the Babylonians' advanced knowledge of astronomy, as they features a depiction of the Babylonian zodiac consisting of twelve constellations. This reveals the Babylonians' ability to track the movements of celestial bodies and utilize this knowledge in the development of astrology. The Stele of Hammurabi stands as a testament to the power and divinity of the Babylonian king and his empire.

Stela of Hammurabi,
Close up of Hammurabi and Shamash.
Mbzt (CC BY-SA)

On the other hand, Ancient Egyptian art thrived along the banks of the Nile River. Egyptian art was deeply intertwined with religious beliefs, funerary practices, and the concept of an afterlife. The representation of power in Egyptian art revolved around the figure of the pharaoh, who was seen as both a political leader and a divine ruler. Hatshepsut, one of the most powerful and successful pharaohs of the New Kingdom period, had the Temple of Hatshepsut built to honor the goddess Hathor and her divine ancestor, Amun-Ra. The temple's unique design features three terraces rising from the desert floor, leading to a colonnaded courtyard. The temple walls are adorned with reliefs depicting Hatshepsut's life and accomplishments, as well as scenes from Egyptian mythology. This demonstrates Hatshepsut's ambition and her desire to establish her legacy as a great pharaoh. By filling the temple with images of her own achievements, Hatshepsut ensured her place in Egyptian history and secured her memory for future generations. The connection between power and divinity is evident in the sanctuary dedicated to Hathor. This sanctuary contains a shrine dedicated to Hathor, adorned with various carvings and paintings depicting the goddess in different forms. Hatshepsut is also depicted alongside Hathor and other deities, underscoring the notion that she was a divine ruler capable of connecting with the gods. The Temple of Hatshepsut serves as a testament to the power and divinity of Hatshepsut, highlighting her ability to commune with the gods and govern with authority and respect.

Mortuary temple of Hatshepsut in Luxor, Egypt.

Both the Stele of Hammurabi and the Temple of Hatshepsut provide significant examples of how ancient civilizations represented power. They help us understand how power was perceived and conveyed in different ways during ancient times. The Stele of Hammurabi contains a code of laws that were enforced throughout the Babylonian Empire, based on the principle of "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth." This concept of justice and retribution was highly valued in Babylonian society. The gods were seen as powerful beings capable of influencing people's daily lives, and it was essential for the ruler to have a connection with them to maintain order and justice in society. The representation of power in the Stele of Hammurabi is evident in the king's imposing stance. Hammurabi's power is also conveyed through his attire and the stele's imposing size. On the other hand, the Temple of Hatshepsut represents power in a different manner. Built during the New Kingdom of Egypt and dedicated to both Hatshepsut and Hathor, the temple features statues in various poses, often depicting Hatshepsut wearing traditional pharaoh’s clothing such as the nemes headdress and royal uraeus. The connection between power and divinity is exemplified in the sanctuary dedicated to Hathor, reflecting the Egyptian belief in a close relationship between the gods and the pharaoh. The pharaoh served as a link between the divine realm and the mortal world. Power and divinity played significant roles in shaping art in ancient times, with rulers and gods often portrayed in artistic images. While both ancient cultures employed art to convey power and divinity, their artistic expressions were shaped by distinct cultural, religious, and political contexts.

Both the Temple of Hatshepsut and the Stele of Hammurabi aid in our understanding of the representation of power and divinity through their connections with the gods. The Stele of Hammurabi underscores the significance of divine authority, with Hammurabi depicted as receiving laws from the god Shamash. Hammurabi's power stemmed from his relationship with the divine, and he was entrusted with upholding the laws handed down to him. Conversely, the Temple of Hatshepsut showcases the power of a strong and accomplished ruler. The detailed reliefs within the temple depict Hatshepsut as a powerful leader capable of achieving great things. Her military victories and trade expeditions demonstrate her ability to expand the reach of her kingdom and secure its prosperity. These artifacts are not only valuable for their artistic merit but also for what they reveal about the social, religious, and political values of ancient civilizations. By studying them, we can gain a deeper understanding of the people and cultures of the past and glean valuable insights into the history of human culture.

References:

"Code of Hammurabi: Laws & Facts." History.com, https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-middle-east/hammurabi

"Hammurabi's Code: What Does It Tell Us About Old Babylonia?." NEH, https://edsitement.neh.gov/lesson-plans/hammurabis-code-what-does-it-tell-us-about-old-babylonia  (May 17, 2019)

"Stele with Law Code of Hammurabi: AHA." Stele with Law Code of Hammurabi | AHA, https://www.historians.org/teaching-and-learning/teaching-resources-for-historians/teaching-and-learning-in-the-digital-age/images-of-power-art-as-an-historiographic-tool/stele-with-law-code-of-hammurabi

"The Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut." The Not So Innocents Abroad, https://www.thenotsoinnocentsabroad.com/blog/the-mortuary-temple-of-hatshepsut  (March 29, 2020).

Kimbrough, Ralen. "Power and Divinity in Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt." The Department of Art and Theatre 2, no. 2 (2023): 5-9.