Majeska Coleman

Since ancient and medieval times, ossuaries have created some of the most beautiful buildings out of an interesting and unorthodox medium: bones. Various examples of architecture throughout history have human remains implemented into their structures. Ossuaries are where remains often resided in ancient and medieval cities due to cemeteries being filled or overcrowded. Although this was a practical solution to burial space being limited, ossuaries were also used in spiritual practices and as a form of commemoration. In particular faiths, such as Catholicism and Zoroastrianism, this practice is used to honor the dead and bring them closer to God. Depending on the religion, some view the body as a temple, while others view the body in death as impure. This can impact the process of putting remains into ossuaries. In other instances, these buildings and monuments are used to honor the dead who may have been victims, or who were members of a royal or famous family. Some often see these large monuments as a reminder to the living about their mortality. Throughout Europe, some examples of ossuaries include the Sedlec Ossuary in Kutná Hora, Czechia, the Capuchin Crypt in Rome, Italy, and the Capela dos Ossos in Évora, Portugal. For civilizations of the Indigenous Americas such as the Mayans and Aztecs, human remains have also formed a component of artistic practices and architecture.

Overview of Ossuaries

The most practical use of ossuaries is to make space for other bodies to be laid to rest. One way to solve overcrowding in ancient burial grounds was to create unique buildings made of interesting bone designs that could also house more bodies. These human remains were often incorporated into the structures of the walls, used to create fancy chandeliers, or even make art pieces. In addition to practical concerns, the origins of ossuaries were also frequently related to religious beliefs.

The Capela Dos Ossos in Evora, Portugal is one building that was created more out of necessity than for religious purposes. During the 16th century, the cemetery began to get crowded, so bones were exhumed to make space for new bodies to fill up the cemetery. The bones were mixed in with cement and used to adorn the walls. At the time, it was believed that the bones would be closer to God. The placement of the skulls and bones are symbolic of this idea where they can be seen surrounding a sculpture of Jesus on the cross, and where the stairs leading up to Jesus are also covered in skulls. The Franciscan monks, the creators of the Capela dos Ossos, were sure to face the front of the skulls on the wall in the direction of Jesus, as if they were looking at him as their personal savior. This imagery and its connection to the Catholic faith only increased this site’s popularity.

Capela dos Ossos (Évora, Portugal)

Another popular place of burial is the Capuchin Crypt in Rome, Italy. The crypt was created in 1631 when monks began to arrive with friars' bones who had passed away. Similar to the Capela Dos Ossos, the bones of monks and friars that died were exhumed to make more burial space. Every 30 years, more bones would be exhumed and added to the haunting aesthetic. The walls are adorned with skulls, and the remnants of human bodies are also hung up on the wall in front of the other skulls and bones as if they are standing up. Lastly, the Sedlec Ossuary in Kutná Hora, Czechia, was also used for space, but its origin story is religious. The ossuary is said to be built on holy land after a man, a Cistercian abbot named Henry, was sent to Palestine to collect a jar of dirt from the Church of Holy Sepulcher. The Church of Holy Sepulcher also happens to be located in Jerusalem where Jesus was crucified. After his journey, Henry sprinkled the jar of earth all over the cemetery in Czechia. Henry's actions were publicized, and Sedlec became a popular place of burial because people wanted their deceased loved ones to be buried in the divine soil. Due to a plague in Europe, hundreds of people died and were placed in Sedlec. In order to accommodate the rising demand, the cemetary was turned into an ossuary. Originally, it was a monk’s task to arrange the bones, but it was later updated by Frantisek Rindt, who arranged the bones in the design that is seen today. Currently, there are 40,000 human bodies inhabiting the ossuary. There are skulls stacked on shelves and hung up on strings to lead the viewer’s eye to a grand chandelier made of skulls in the middle of the room.

Sedlec Ossuary (Kutná Hora, Czechia), photograph by Marcin Szal

Ossuaries and Religio-Cultural Practices

Using human remains in the foundations of buildings and in sculpture is also present in the architectural works of the Mayans and Aztecs, although it is most commonly linked in scholarship to the practice of human sacrifice. In the Mayan civilization, skeletal bones, blood, and body parts were used in art. Offering the human body is also thought to have been seen as a way to appease the gods, and sacrificial ceremonies of war captives and others were performed in the sacred city of Tenochtitlan. Decapitation was one method the Mayans used to prepare skulls. Possibly, the skull was the most important part as it played a major role at different stages of the sacrifice ritual. Priests would carry the body to an open space where they laid it face-up. Using sharp blades, the priests would cut away the skin of the face and leave nothing but the skull. The next step was to prepare the skull to be put on a tzompantli, which is a large fence full of skulls on a rack. In preparation, the priests carved large holes on both sides of the skulls, so that they would slide onto a long wooden post. The skulls were sent to Tenochtitlan's tzompantli, which sat in front of the Templo Mayor. Placing these skulls in front of the pyramid was very essential as there were two temples on top. One was dedicated to the war god, Huitzilopochtli, and the other one was dedicated to the rain god, Tlaloc. After time passed, the skull would break into pieces, and the priests would take the pieces and make it into a mask to be used as an offering. In this way, bodies were made sacred and treated as such.

Templo Mayor, (Tenochtitlan, Mexico), Photography by Wolfgang Sauber

The Aztecs were also another civilization that used human remains for sacrificial offerings. In Aztec culture, the skulls were used to ensure that the existence of the world continued. According to Aztec theology, the sun god Huitzilopochtli was involved in a war against darkness. It was said that if the darkness won, the world would end. In order to prevent the apocalypse, the Aztecs made sacrifices to the sun to keep it in the sky. They fed him with human hearts and blood which explains accounts of the Aztecs carving the heart out of the human body and holding it to the sky, while it was still beating. The ritual was so important that Aztec citizens were willing to sacrifice themselves to Huitzilopochtli. It was seen as a great honor and would guarantee a spot in the afterlife.

Another benefit of displaying human remains as decorations in architecture is the intimidation it causes. The ritual killing and sacrificial offering of war captives combined with the monumental display of skulls served as reminders of the strength and power of the Aztec empire. During research studies of the Templo Mayor, archaeologists were able to administer DNA tests to the skulls found at the site. There were more than 650 skulls and thousands of fragmented bones found at Templo Mayor. The method of displaying these human remains spoke volumes, and in addition to religious purposes was possibly designed to ensure that enemies of the Aztec people would fall into line. Andrés de Tapia, a conquistador, described what he saw in a journal that was found centuries later. He recalled seeing two towers that were surrounding the Templo Mayor. Both of the structures were made entirely of skulls, and there was a wooden rack displaying thousands of more skulls that had been mounted on wooden stakes. At first, these accounts were believed to be exaggerated for the sake of dehumanizing the Aztecs and justifying the destruction of Tenochtitlán and the murder of its people, and this still needs to be taken into consideration. However, in 2015 and 2018, archaeologists discovered evidence that may prove Tapia’s accounts. The remains of the tzompantli had been found, and it was reported that 80,400 men, women, and children were sacrificed for the Templo Mayor, and that accompanying murals and stone carvings may have been indicating elements of true events.

Conclusion

In summary, various cultures used human remains in their architectural structures for different reasons. The most practical reason is to provide more space for bodies to reside, so organizers creatively arranged the bones to accommodate more of the deceased. Other cultures, both Western and Non-Western, have used human remains to praise or appease the gods, or as a sacrifice in order to avoid the end of the world. Naturally, intimidation was also a factor in displaying skeletons and bones in architecture. Examining the traditions and the accounts of people from diverse cultures who engage in the display of human remains gives insight to the different ways in which the world has viewed Western and Non-Western practices. Oftentimes, practices and methods like these aren’t seen as dehumanizing in European culture. Since Christianity and Catholicism are major religions and were used to assimilate other nations, a practice resulting in the displays seen in ossuaries is regarded as an honorable religious practice. On the other hand, when ancient cultures including other races and ethnicities have practices that incorporate human remains into architecture, it is seen as inhuman and savage. Studies like these are important to conduct because they highlight issues regarding post-colonialism and cognitive dissonance in art history.

References

Funeral Guide. “A Guide to Ossuaries & Bone Churches.” Funeral Guide, May 20, 2019. https://www.funeralguide.co.uk/blog/what-is-an-ossuary.

Neal, Meg. “Bone Houses: A Definitive Guide to the World's Ossuaries.” Atlas Obscura, October 14, 2019.

Avice, Sophia. “Sedlec Ossuary: The Dark History of the Church of Bones.” Yoair Blog, January 27, 2022. https://www.yoair.com/blog/sedlec-ossuary-the-dark-history-of-the-church-of-bones-bones/.

Curry, Dennis C. “OSSUARY BURIALS IN MIDDLE ATLANTIC LANDSCAPES.” Maryland.gov, N.d. https://mht.maryland.gov/documents/pdf/archeology/currentresearch/middle_atlantic_ ossuaries.pdf.

Bennett, Persephone. “Ossuaries: Where Bones Are Laid to Rest: Jonsbones: Osteology Education.” JonsBones, June 17, 2021. https://www.jonsbones.com/blog/ossuaries-where-bones-are-laid-to-rest.

Glancey, Jonathan. “The Templo Mayor: A Place for Human Sacrifices.” BBC Culture. BBC, February 27, 2015. https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20150227-a-place-for-human-sacrifices.

Citation: Coleman, Majeska. “Ossuaries: The Use of Human Remains in Architecture.” Journal of Art & Theatre, vol. 1, no. 2 (2022): 24-29.