African American artists have historically struggled to advance in their careers due to racial discrimination and a lack of opportunities. This essay explores Black women across the Harlem Renaissance, WWII, the Black Arts Movement, and the present day who found it necessary to pursue their artistic endeavors despite the challenges they faced.

Harlem Renaissance Librarian Regina Andrews

Regina Andrews, a Harlem Renaissance librarian, was born in 1901 and passed away in 1993. Though widely recognized as a distinguished librarian, Andrews accomplished much more throughout her career than just her work in librarianship. Certainly, Regina’s successes were tremendous, yet she found herself having to work twice as hard as her white counterparts for promotions and salary increases that accurately reflected her work ethic and experience. Fortunately for Regina, she grew up watching her father, William Grant Anderson, fight injustices in the courtroom. Regina’s upbringing, enriched by both parents who instilled in her the courage, education, and skills necessary for success, helped her not let race or gender limit her accomplishments.

Regina grew up at 4609 Vincennes Avenue with her lawyer father and artist mother, Margaret Anderson, along with her siblings, aunt, and house servant. If the “one-drop rule” is considered, the entire household was classified as Black, though Regina herself never defined her identity in racialized terms. She identified as American and responded as such when asked about her race. Regina’s multicultural background complicated her racial identity. For example, the racial classification of her father, William Grant Anderson, was listed as “mulatto” on the 1870 Census, only to be changed to “brown” on her birth certificate. (Whitmire, 2024). This was one of many experiences that made it challenging for Regina to navigate her place in society.

Despite her library experience at Hyde Park High School, Wilberforce University, and the Chicago Public Library, Regina found her qualifications insufficient when seeking promotion within the New York Public Library (NYPL). W.E.B. Du Bois, leader of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), became a close friend after Regina moved to Harlem. Although Regina seldom spoke of the racism she encountered at the NYPL, Du Bois advocated for her advancement. In a meeting with Franklin H. Hopper, the chief of the NYPL circulation department, Du Bois questioned when Regina would be promoted. Dissatisfied with Hopper’s response of “eventually,” Du Bois persisted in fighting for her rights.

Du Bois wrote to Hopper, “While apparently there are forty-two branches where white assistants may get experience and promotion, there are only two or three where colored girls will be tolerated” (Whitmire, 2014). Du Bois’s colleague, Walter White, also supported Regina, writing to her supervisor, Ernestine Rose, that he would no longer speak to the library’s students due to the racial discrimination Regina faced. Following Du Bois’s and White’s letters, Regina was transferred from the 135th Street Library to the Rivington Street Branch. She was promoted to a Grade Four librarian, receiving a ten-dollar raise for a total salary of $165 per month. Regina’s career advanced further when she became the first African American woman to manage a branch in NYPL history, following Leah Lewinson’s retirement.

Fashion, Identity, and Social Passing in Literature

Women during the 20th century were judged heavily by their clothing. Fashion became one determining factor for how African American women would be considered in society or whether they would be able to pass as White. Both Jessie Redmon Fauset and Nella Larsen, authors of the novels Plum Bun and Quicksand, published during the Harlem Renaissance, discuss this in their work. By the time of the Harlem Renaissance, Black women had developed distinct styles, some of which were passed down from slavery. What society considered a “proper” way to dress was plain clothing with minimal colors. Anything that didn’t fit within white mainstream culture was criticized.

In Fauset’s book, the character Angela Murray and her mother Mattie were essentially able to pass for White, which is enhanced through fashion. Angela observed her mother’s luxurious lifestyle and noted that the rewards of life—wealth, glamour, and pleasure— “are for white-skinned people only” (Way, 2020). Angela’s light complexion granted her access to opportunities that might have been challenging to attain had she been darker skinned. Throughout the novel, Fauset illustrates how fashion and race intersect for Angela, influencing how people perceive her.

Angela encountered racial prejudice in high school when attempting to make friends. When her classmate Mary discovers that Angela is Black, she no longer considers Angela worthy of friendship. To avoid judgment, Angela adopts “passing” as a lifestyle, emulating her mother’s path. Teaching was considered a respectable career for African Americans, so Angela pursued art education. While taking art classes, Angela is favored by one of her art teachers briefly until they later learn of Angela’s race. Once again, Angela’s identity as a Black woman wasn’t accepted. The constant rejection Angela encountered pushed her to want to mask her Blackness just as she witnessed her mother Mattie doing growing up.

By contrast, in the book Quicksand by Nella Larsen, the character Helga Crane strives to embrace her authentic self by expressing her African heritage through her style and dress. By staying true to her values and openly displaying her Black identity, Helga encounters societal challenges that compel her to code-switch in certain environments. Like Angela, Helga becomes a teacher, but finds little enjoyment in the role, as the conservative culture at Naxos, a Southern institution that promotes racial uplift but discourages individuality, clashes with her free-spirited nature. (Way, 2020). Helga resists criticism regarding her appearance from both White and Black citizens at Naxos, who expect her to adhere to a muted color scheme—black, brown, and navy—considered “respectable” for Black women. Helga’s style, by contrast, features vibrant colors that set her apart.

Throughout the novel, Larsen’s character alters her fashion style when necessary. When Helga tries to get a job in New York, she dresses in simple, toned-down garments for her interview. Once Helga moves to Harlem, she thinks she has found a place where she can fully be herself. Later, she learns that white audiences have exploited Black people in Harlem, and it is not the safe space she has been seeking. After learning this, Helga leaves to visit her aunt and uncle in Denmark. When Helga arrives, her aunt is very supportive of Helga, dressing in bright and expressive colors that would normally fit Helga’s personality. Helga, however, learns that Danish society’s views of Black fashion are founded on stereotypes. This Danish “fantasy of Blackness is shared by the white tourists in Harlem who meet with jazz performers dressed as jungle primitives, and by the French who applaud Josephine Baker in her Banana skirt” (Way, 2020).  Helga never finds a place that is fully accepting of her Blackness, which causes her to lose her self-identity.

WWII and Black Women in Entertainment

During WWII, Black entertainers like Josephine Baker played crucial roles in both supporting the war effort and challenging racial norms, yet they often faced stark disparities in recognition and representation. Two such figures, Lena Horne and Etta Moten, broke barriers despite the constraints of their era. Although Horne and Moten were highly talented, only Lena Horne gained significant recognition in mainstream media. Moten’s impact was more localized; it was celebrated in her hometown newspaper, The Call, a Kansas City publication established in 1919. As a newspaper focused on positively representing African American achievements, The Call sought to portray entertainers like Horne and Moten in a light that discredited stereotypical narratives and promoted African American success. (Williams, 2020).

Within Kansas City’s segregated Black community, The Call emphasized individual recognition based on character rather than wealth, positioning Moten as a relatable figure for residents. As Horne and Moten traveled as entertainers, they confronted discrimination head-on, often facing restrictions in the very hotels where they performed. Moten, for instance, “recalled experiencing verbal discrimination from two White women while on tour for the opera Porgy and Bess,” where she portrayed the character Bess. On another occasion, Moten was refused a hotel room by a manager in Pocatello, Idaho (Williams, 2020). Despite these challenges, both Moten and Horne persisted in their careers, embodying the resilience expected of Black women entertainers and supporting Black soldiers during WWII by performing and offering pin-up photos to boost morale.

The societal perceptions surrounding these entertainers were complex and often racially charged. Horne and Moten’s lighter skin tones raised questions within the African American community about the type of Black beauty being idealized in popular culture. Much like Helga in Quicksand by Nella Larsen, Horne rejected White consumer stereotypes of Black women. She recognized the limitations that public perception imposed on her career and maintained her stance as a social activist who championed equal rights. This sense of activism and dedication to authenticity was critical in shaping their public image. Despite differences in popularity, both Horne and Moten used their platforms to challenge societal expectations, seeking to redefine respectability and beauty for Black women on their terms.

Through these entertainers’ stories, we see the resilience of African American women navigating the entertainment industry’s racialized landscape during wartime. They held onto their individuality and used their influence to promote positive images of Black beauty, strength, and dignity in an era where such representations were rare.

Black Arts Movement and the Politics of Black Identity

Although Elizabeth Catlett lived in Mexico for most of her life, her work reflected a deep commitment to the Black Arts Movement of the 1960s and 1970s. Catlett majored in art at Howard University, graduating in 1935, and later earned an MFA from the University of Iowa in 1940. As Catlett became more aware of the societal issues around her, she transformed as an artist. After completing her master’s degree, Catlett began teaching at Dillard University, an HBCU. As an instructor, she exposed her students to segregation laws by taking them to the Isaac Delgado Museum of Art. Later, Catlett moved to New York and taught at the George Washington Carver School in Harlem, an affordable institution for low-income students. Her experience there inspired her to focus on representing the working class through her paintings, prints, and sculptures.

Catlett eventually moved to Mexico, where she created affordable prints supporting political causes. Her Mexican print series, The Negro Woman, is one of her most powerful collections, illustrating her commitment to empowering Black people by portraying their lived experiences and the struggles of Black women against oppression. The collection includes depictions of women who have either endured slavery firsthand or lived through its aftermath. When Catlett became a Mexican citizen in 1962, she could no longer travel freely to the United States, as she was viewed as a threat for her support of leftist movements. Catlett expressed her frustration through her art when she was unable to travel between Mexico and the United States. One example is Negro es Bello II, created in 1969. The title, Negro es Bello, meaning “Black is Beautiful” in Spanish, exemplifies her dedication to both African and Mexican communities facing oppression.

Another significant piece is Catlett’s Mask for Whites, which illustrates her frustration over her inability to participate in Civil Rights protests, the Black Power Movement, or connect with loved ones in the United States. The design of Mask for Whites incorporates collage elements, including clippings from “The Black Panther Black Community News Service, the official newspaper of the Black Panther Party” (Dalila, 2018). Like Negro es Bello II, Mask for Whites uses a transnational framework, blending Mexican and African artistic styles. This work also reflects the Neo-Africanism trend of the Black Arts Movement, which sought to connect African Americans with their African heritage, encouraging acts of resistance in a racist society.

Kim McMillon on the Continuation of the Harlem Renaissance

Like Catlett’s work in Mask for Whites, Kim McMillon argues that it is essential to connect African American culture to ancestral heritage so that Black women can navigate a society designed to limit their accomplishments. Ancestral tools are an art form that can be expressed through music, dance, poetry, and community. By connecting with their ancestors, Black women are allowed to harness their strength and counter oppression in a White-dominated society. McMillon, who is pursuing her Ph.D. in World Cultures and Interdisciplinary Humanities at the University of California, centers her research on the Black Arts Movement and African American literature. She uses plays and poetry created during the BAM to expose her students to gender and race issues, allowing them to internalize these struggles through performance to understand better how they might feel in similar conditions.

Though the Black Arts Movement is commonly dated to the 1960s and 1970s, McMillon views BAM as a continuation of the Harlem Renaissance, a movement that spans generations. “The words and art of Black men and women are not limited to a movement or point in time; they are an eternal movement of art that speaks to the Black experience and our African roots” (McMillon, 2018). Moving forward as a society requires understanding the history of Black women, dating back to slavery and the hardships they endured. Black women play a crucial role in healing from slavery’s effects, and BAM highlights their voices through theater, poetry, and song.

Nikki Giovanni stands out as a poet and activist who navigates racism by maintaining her individuality, being both assertive in her poems and actions, yet offering tenderness when discussing love and family. Giovanni made decisions that sometimes diverged from her followers’ expectations. Over the years, she has held many roles—poet, professor, public speaker, and scholar—yet Giovanni has stayed true to her values and individuality as an African American artist.

During the start of Giovanni’s career in the 1960s, her writings reflected the expansive themes of young artists in the Black Arts Movement. However, she gradually transitioned to exploring emotional and political issues in the United States. Giovanni’s ability to relate to her audience and remain steadfast in her beliefs has inspired generation after generation. Her influence reaches people of all ages, races, and sexes.

Giovanni stayed involved in social movements within African American communities, giving her the opportunity to know individuals personally and build strong community ties. She explains, “face-to-face interaction and building community around the world” are central to her long-lasting success. Her versatility—combining militant poems with softer, more personal works—demonstrates her strength, bravery, and individuality as a writer.

Giovanni’s work often touches on children’s development, emphasizing the importance of knowing one’s history and learning from elders. Elders are a recurring theme in Giovanni’s poems, reflecting her belief in the intergenerational transmission of wisdom. When she started teaching at Virginia Tech, Giovanni raised awareness about persistent racial discrimination, a topic many professors in predominantly White areas, like the Appalachian Valley, might have avoided. Some saw her outspoken stance on inequality as militant.

Giovanni’s poem “We Are Virginia Tech,” written in response to the 2007 campus shooting, exemplifies her inclusivity and ability to unite people through her words. Despite the challenges she faced, including losing students she cared about, Giovanni continued to extend her voice to diverse audiences, including an invitation to speak at NASA. There, addressing a predominantly White male audience, Giovanni argued that African Americans, having survived the Middle Passage, are well-suited to face the challenges of space exploration.

The final artist I will discuss is Audre Lorde. Lorde is similar to Nikki Giovanni in that she does not define herself by a single label. Both women navigate the world with confidence and embrace versatility in self-identity and poetry. Giovanni’s poetry combines militancy with familial themes, while Audre Lorde uniquely embodies every aspect of her identity, honoring her African Caribbean heritage, her sexuality, and her place as a Black woman in America. Lorde brings this intersectional perspective to her work, particularly in her fictional autobiography, Zami: A New Spelling of My Name.

In Zami, Lorde uses an “erotic tone” throughout, weaving in references to her Caribbean mother, her experiences as a lesbian, and her life as a Black woman in America. For Lorde, the erotic represents a form of self-awareness and self-expression that allows her to claim her power. This erotic self-understanding, she believes, is necessary for all women to fully assert themselves within a patriarchal society. Lorde’s celebration of identity intersects with her challenge to societal norms, as she sees the erotic as a means to embody one’s true self, break free from oppression, and create spaces for women’s voices.

Lorde’s intersectional approach is apparent in her poetic and theoretical writings, where she emphasizes the need for Black women to integrate all parts of their identities rather than compartmentalizing them. She believes in fully embracing the complexities of her identity, rather than conforming to limiting or monolithic categories. In her life and in Zami, Lorde illustrates how her multiple identities coexist and empower one another. She uses these facets of herself as sources of resilience and connection to other marginalized individuals and communities.

In her work, Lorde also encourages Black women to explore their own histories, cultural backgrounds, and personal narratives as essential tools for empowerment and self-advocacy. She challenges the notion of identity as static or singular and instead advocates for a fluid, evolving self-concept that draws on ancestral wisdom and modern experience. Through this lens, Lorde’s writing is not merely autobiographical; it serves as a blueprint for women to reclaim their stories, their bodies, and their place within society, all while resisting a world structured by racism, sexism, and homophobia.

By embodying and embracing her intersectional identity, Audre Lorde becomes not only a voice of resistance but also a symbol of self-defined existence—a challenge to any constraints placed upon her due to race, gender, or sexuality. Her life and work continue to inspire others to acknowledge, celebrate, and affirm the full spectrum of their own identities.

African American artists have faced significant obstacles in advancing their careers due to racial discrimination and limited opportunities. In this examination, I have explored various African American women artists, poets, authors, and performers. Each woman’s experience is unique, yet there is an overlap in how they navigate race and gender in America. This paper examines women from the Harlem Renaissance, the Black Arts Movement, WWII, and late 20th-century literature. I discussed each artist’s work or projects, the real or fictional challenges they encountered, and how they addressed issues of race and gender in 20th-century America.

References:

Brown, Kay. “The emergence of Black Women Artists: The founding of ‘Where we at.’” Nka Journal of Contemporary African Art, vol. 2011, no. 29, 1 Nov. 2011, pp. 118–127.

Ethelene Whitmire. (2014). Regina Anderson Andrews, Harlem Renaissance Librarian. University of Illinois Press.

Harris, T. (2012). Nikki Giovanni: Literary Survivor Across Centuries. Appalachian Heritage, 40(4), 34–47.

Kemp, Y. B. (2004). Writing Power: Identity Complexities and the Exotic Erotic in Audre Lorde’s Writing. Studies in the Literary Imagination, 37(2), 21–36.

McMillon, K. (2018). Black Feminism, The Ancestors Speak, and the Women of the Black Arts Movement. Journal of Pan African Studies, 11(6), 175–185.1.

Scruggs, Dalila. “Activism in exile: Elizabeth Catlett’s mask for whites.” American Art, vol. 32, no. 3, Sept. 2018, pp. 2–21.

Way, E. (2020). Dressing to Pass during the Harlem Renaissance: Fashion in the Novels of Jessie Redmon Fauset and Nella Larsen. Fashion Theory: The Journal of Dress, Body & Culture, 24(4), 535–566. https://doi-org.ecnhts-proxy.jsums.edu/10.1080/1362704X.2020.1746506

Williams, M. E. (2010). “Lena Not the Only One”: Representations of Lena Horne and Etta Moten in the Kansas City Call, 1941-1945. American Studies 51(1/2), 59–67. https://doi-org.ecnhts-proxy.jsums.edu/10.1353/ams.2010.006